Space research is scientific studies carried out using scientific equipment in space. Frequently, the term includes research in the upper atmosphere using sounding rockets and high-altitude balloons.
Space research should not be confused with Space science, which is one of many research disciplines addressed by space researchers. The process of space exploration involves a lot of space research, but space research additionally includes usage of space technology for a broader spectrum of research disciplines, including Earth science and materials science.
Space research emerged as a field of research based on the advancing rocket technology of the 1940s and 1950’s. In 1948-1949 detectors on V-2 rocket flights detected x-rays from the sun. [1] Sounding rockets proved useful for studies of the structure of the upper atmosphere. As higher altitudes were reached, the field of space physics emerged with studies of aurorae, the ionosphere and the magnetosphere. Notable as the start of satellite-based space research is the detection of the Van Allen radiation belt by Explorer 1 in 1958, four months after the launch of the first satellite, Sputnik 1. In the following year space planetology emerged with a series of lunar probes, e.g. the first photographs of the far side of the moon by Luna 3 in 1959.
The early space researchers obtained an important international forum with the establishment of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR) in 1958, which achieved an exchange of scientific information between east and west during the cold war, despite the military origin of the rocket technology underlying the research field.
Space research includes the following fields of science:
· Earth observations, using remote sensing techniques to interpret optical and radar data from Earth observation satellites
· Space physics, the in situ study of space plasmas, e.g. aurorae, the ionosphere, the magnetosphere and space weather
· Astronomy, using space telescopes and detectors that are not limited by looking through the atmosphere
· Life sciences, including human physiology, using the space radiation environment and weightlessness
ACHIEVEMENTS OF INDIA IN SPACE RESEARCH
(1960-1970)The Indian space program began establishing itself with the launch of sounding rockets, which was complimented by India's geographical proximity to the equator. These were launched from the newly-established Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station (TERLS), built near Thiruvananthapuram in southern Kerala. Initially, American sounding rockets like the Nike-Apache, and French sounding rockets like the Centaure, were fired and used for studying the upper atmospheric electrojet, which until then had only been studied from ship-based Sounding rocket launches in the Pacific Ocean. These were soon followed by British and Russian rockets. However, since day one, the space program had grand ambitions of developing indigenous technology and India soon began developing its own sounding rockets, using solid propellants - these were called the Rohini family of sounding rockets. As the Indian Rohini program continued to launch sounding rockets of greater size and complexity, the space program was expanded and eventually given its own government department, separate from the Department of Atomic Energy. In 1969 the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) was created from the Indian National Committee for Space Research (INCOSPAR) program under the DAE, continued under the Space Commission and finally the Department of Space, created in June of 1972.
(1970-1980) In the 1960s, Sarabhai had taken part in an early study with NASA regarding the feasibility of using satellites for applications as wide as direct television broadcasting, and this study had found that it was the most economical way of transmitting such broadcasts. Having recognized the benefits that satellites could bring to India from the very start, Sarabhai and the ISRO set about designing and creating an independent launch vehicle, capable of launching into orbit, and providing the valuable experience needed for the construction of larger launch vehicles in future. Recognizing the advanced capability India had in building solid motors with the Rohini series, and that other nations had favored solid rockets for similar projects, the ISRO set about building the technology and infrastructure for the Satellite Launch Vehicle (SLV). Inspired by the American Scout rocket, the vehicle would be a four-stage all-solid vehicle. Meanwhile, India also began developing satellite technology, anticipating the remote sensing and communication needs of the future. India's first foray into space began with the launch of its satellite
Aryabhata in 1975 by a Soviet booster. By 1979, the SLV was ready to be launched from a newlyestablished second launch site, the Shriharikota Rocket Launching Station (SRLS). The first launch in 1979 was a failure, attributed to a control failure in the second stage. By 1980 this problem had been worked out. The first indigenous satellite launched by India was called Rohini-1.
(1980-1990)Following the success of the SLV, ISRO was keen to begin construction of a satellite launch vehicle that would be able to put truly useful satellites into polar orbits. Design of the PolarSatellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) was soon underway. This vehicle would be designed as India's workhorse launch system, taking advantage of both old technology with large reliable solid-stages, and new liquid engines. At the same time, it was decided by the ISRO management that it would be prudent to develop a smaller rocket, based on the SLV that would serve as a testbed for many of the new technologies that would be used on the PSLV. The Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV) would test technologies like strap-on boosters and new guidance systems, so that experience could be gained before the PSLV went into full production. Eventually, the ASLV was flight tested in 1987,but this launch was a failure. After minor corrections, another launch was attempted in 1988, this launch again failed.
(1990-2000)It was not until 1992 that the first successful launch of the ASLV took place. At this point the launch vehicle, which could only put very small payloads into orbit, had achieved its objective. In 1993, the time had come for the maiden flight of the PSLV. The first launch was a failure. The first successful launch took place in 1994, and since then, the PSLV has become the workhorse launch vehicle - placing both remote sensing and communications satellites into orbit, creating the largest cluster in the world, and providing unique data to Indian industry and agriculture. Continual performance upgrades have increased the payload capacity of the rocket significantly since then. By this time, with the launch of the PSLV not far away, it had been decided that work should begin on the next class of launch vehicles, intended to place larger satellites into geostationary transfer orbit (GTO), and thus a launcher partly derived from the PSLV design, but featuring large liquid strap-on motors and a cryogenic upper-stage motor, was devised - the Geostationary Satellite Launch Vehicle.
(2000--)Major achievement which seems to have gone largely unnoticed is ISRO’s successful ground testing of the cryogenic engine on November 15, 2007. This test — conducted for its full flight duration of 720 seconds at the Liquid Propulsion test facility at Mahendragiri, Tamil Nadu, puts India on the world map of cutting edge rocket propulsion technology. Only five other nations — The US, Russia, Japan, China and France — currently have this capability. Cryogenic engines are important for launch of satellites, particularly of the INSAT variety which operate from a geostationary orbit, some 36,000 km above earth’s surface. To launch these, ISRO uses a vehicle called GSLV (Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle). This vehicle has three stages of which the third — and the most critical — stage is a cryogenic stage So far, India uses a Russian-made cryogenic engine. But with this recent test, the decks are cleared for using an indigenous engine for the next GSLV (GSLVD3) launch, expected in 2008. Cryogenics studies behavior of materials at very low temperatures — below minus 150° Celsius (minus 238° Fahrenheit or 123° Kelvin) — as found in the upper atmosphere. The cryogenic engine, which uses a combination of liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen as fuel, needs to run for over 700 seconds for GSLV launches.
Space Capsule Recovery Experiment
The Space Capsule Recovery Experiment (SRE-1) is an Indian experimental spacecraft which was launched at 03:53 GMT on January 10, 2007 from Shriharikota by the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO). The launch was conducted using the PSLV C7 rocket, along with three other satellites. It remained in orbit for 12 days before re-entering the Earth's atmosphere and splashing down into the Bay of Bengal at 04:16 GMT on January 22. The SRE 1 was designed to demonstrate the capability to recover an orbiting space capsule, and the technology of an orbiting platform for performing experiments in microgravity conditions. It was also intended to test reusable Thermal Protection System, navigation, guidance and control, hypersonic aero-thermodynamics, management of communication blackout, deceleration and flotation system and recovery operations.
Chandrayaan-1
First mission to the Moon launched by India's national space agency the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO). The unmanned lunar exploration mission includes a lunar orbiter and an impactor. India launched the spacecraft by a modified version of the PSLV C11 on 22 October 2008 from Satish Dhawan Space Centre, Shriharikota, Nellore District, Andhra Pradesh about 80 km north of Chennai at 06:22 IST (00:52 UTC).The mission is a major boost to India's space program, as India joins Asian nations China and Japan in exploring the Moon. The vehicle was successfully inserted into lunar orbit on 8 November 2008.
On November 14, 2008, the Moon Impact Probe separated from the Moon-orbiting Chandrayaan at 20:06 and impacted the lunar South Pole in a controlled manner, making India the fourth country to place its flag on the Moon. The MIP impacted near the crater Shackleton, at the lunar south pole, at 20:31 on 14 November 2008 releasing subsurface debris that could be analyzed for presence of water ice. The estimated cost for the project is Rs. 386 crore (US$ 80 million).
The remote sensing lunar satellite had a weight of 1,380 kilograms (3,042 lb) at launch and 675
kilograms (1,488 lb) in lunar orbit and carries high resolution remote sensing equipment for visible, near infrared, and soft and hard X-ray frequencies. Over a two-year period, it is intended to survey the lunar surface to produce a complete map of its chemical characteristics and 3-dimensional topography. The Polar Regions are of special interest, as they might contain ice. The lunar mission carries five ISRO payloads and six payloads from other international space agencies including NASA, ESA, and the Bulgarian Aerospace Agency, which were carried free of cost.
Objectives
The stated scientific objectives of the mission are:
· To design, develop, launch and orbit a spacecraft around the Moon using an Indian-made launch vehicle.
· Conduct scientific experiments using instruments on-board the spacecraft which will yield the following results:
· Preparation of a three-dimensional atlas (with high spatial and altitude resolution of 5-10 m) of both the near and far side of the Moon.
· Chemical and mineralogical mapping of the entire lunar surface at high spatial resolution, mapping particularly the chemical elements Magnesium, Aluminium, Silicon, Calcium, Iron, Titanium, Radon, Uranium, & Thorium.
· The impact of a sub-satellite (Moon Impact Probe — MIP) on the surface on the Moon as a fore-runner to future soft-landing missions.
Specifications
· Mass:1380 kg at launch, 675 kg at lunar orbit, and 523 kg after releasing the impactor.
· Dimensions: Cuboid in shape of approximately 1.5 m
· Communications: X band, 0.7 m diameter parabolic antenna for payload data transmission.The Telemetry, Tracking & Command (TTC) communication operates in S band frequency.
· Power: The spacecraft is mainly powered by its solar array, which includes one solar panel covering a total area of 2.15 x 1.8 m generating 700 W of power, which is stored in a 36 A·h lithium-ion battery. The spacecraft uses a bipropellant integrated propulsion system to reach lunar orbit as well as orbit and altitude maintenance while orbiting the Moon.
Specific areas of study
High-resolution mineralogical and chemical imaging of the permanently shadowed north and south polar regions.
· Search for surface or sub-surface water-ice on the Moon, especially at the lunar poles.
· Identification of chemicals in lunar highland rocks.
· Chemical stratigraphy of lunar crust by remote sensing of the central uplands of large lunar craters, and of the South Pole Aitkin Region (SPAR), where interior material may be expected.
· To map the height variation of the lunar surface features.
· Observation of X-ray spectrum greater than 10 keV and stereographic coverage of most of the Moon's surface with 5 m resolution
· To provide new insights in understanding the Moon's origin and evolution.
Major achievements
1962: Indian National Committee for Space Research (INCOSPAR); formed by the
Department of Atomic Energy, and work on establishing Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station (TERLS) near Trivandrum began.
1963: First sounding rocket launched from TERLS on November 21, 1963.
1965: Space Science & Technology Centre (SSTC) established in Thumba.
1967: Satellite Telecommunication Earth Station set up at Ahmadabad.
1972: Space Commission and Department of Space set up.
1975: First Indian Satellite, Aryabhata, launched (April 19, 1975).
1976: Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE) conducted.
1979: Bhaskara-1, an experimental satellite launched. First experimental launch of SLV-3 with Rohini satellite on board failed.
1980: Second experimental launch of SLV-3 Rohini satellite successfully placed in orbit.
1981: APPLE, an experimental geostationary communication satellite successfully launched on June 19.
1981: Bhaskara-II launched on November 20.
1982: INSAT-1A launched (April); deactivated in September.
1983: Second launch of SLV-3. RS-D2 placed in orbit. INSAT-1B launched.
1984: Indo-Soviet manned space mission (April). Rakesh Sharma became the first Indian to reach space.
1987: ASLV with SROSS-1 satellite on board launched.
1988: First Indian remote sensing satellite, IRS-1A launched. INSAT-1C launched (July). Abandoned in November.
1990: INSAT-1D launched successfully.
1991: Launch of second operational Remote Sensing satellite, IRS-1B (August).
1992: Third developmental launch of ASLV with SROCC-C on board (May). Satellite placed in orbit. First indigenously built satellite INSAT-2A launched successfully.
1993: INSAT-2B launched in July successfully. First developmental launch of PSLV with IRS-1E on board fails.
1994: Fourth developmental launch of ASLV successful (May). Second developmental launch of Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) with IRS-P2 successfully (October).
1995: INSAT-2C launched in December. Third operational IRS (IRS) launched.
1996: Third developmental launch of PSLV with IRS-P3 successful (March).
1997: INSAT-2D launched in June became inoperational in October. Arabsat1C, since renamed INSAT-2DT, acquired in November. First operational launch of PSLV with IRS-1D successful (September).
1998: INSAT system capacity augmented with the readiness of INSAT-2DT acquired from Arabsat (January).
1999: INSAT-2E the last satellite in the multi-purpose INSAT-2 series, launched by Ariane from Kourou French Guyana (April 3, 1999). IRS-P4 (OCEANSAT), launched by Polar Satellite launch vehicle (PSLV-C2) along with Korean KITSAT-3 and German DLR-TUBSAT from
Shriharikota (26 May 1999).
2000: INSAT-3B was launched on 22 March 2000.
2001: Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle-D1 (GSLV-D1), the first developmental
launch of GSLV with GSAT-1 onboard partially successful.
2002: INSAT-3C launched successfully by Arianespace (January), PSLV-C4 launches KALPANA- 1 (September).
2003: GSLV-D2, the second developmental launch of GSLV with GSAT-2 successful (May).
2004: First operational flight of GSLV (F01) successfully launches EDUSAT (September).
2005: Launch of CARTOSAT and HAMSAT by PSLV-C6 from the second launch pad (Universal Launch Pad) (May). INSAT 4A Launched successfully by the European Ariane-5G.
2006: Second operational flight of GSLV (F02) unsuccessful July 10, 2006. GSLV-F02 was carrying INSAT-4C.
2007: Successful launch of CARTOSAT-2, SRE-1, LAPAN-TUBSAT and PEHUENSAT-1 on PSLV C7 on January 10, 2007.
2007: SRE-1 splashed down in the Bay of Bengal on January 22, 2007 and was successfully recovered by the Indian Coast Guard and Indian Navy, making India one of the few countries to have re-entry technology.
2007: INSAT-4B successfully launched by Arianespace on March 12.
2007: PSLV-C8 successfully places an Italian satellite, AGILE into its orbit on April 23.
2007: Successful launch of GSLV (GSLV-F04) with INSAT-4CR on board from SDSC SHAR on
September 2.
2008: PSLV-C10 successfully launches TECSAR satellite under a commercial contract with
Antrix Corporation on January 21.
2008:PSLV-C9 successfully launches CARTOSAT-2A, IMS-1 and 8 foreign nano satellites from Shriharikota on April 28
2008: PSLV-C11 successfully launches CHANDRAYAAN-1 from Sriharikota on October 22.
Satellite Launch Vehicles
Satellite Launch Vehicle (SLV) - an all-solid four-stage satellite launch vehicle. The SLV can
place 40 kg into low earth orbit.
Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV) - an all-solid five-stage satellite launch vehicle.
The ASLV can place 150 kg into low earth orbit.
Present
Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) - a four-stage rocket with liquid and solid stages. The
PSLV can place 1600 kg into polar sun synchronous orbit.
Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mark I/II (GSLV-I/II) - a three-stage rocket with
solid, liquid and cryostages. The GSLV can place 2200 kg into geostationary transfer orbit.
Future
Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mark III (GSLV-III) - a three-stage rocket with solid, liquid and cryostages. The GSLV can place 4000-6000 kg into geostationary transfer orbit.
Reusable Launch Vehicle (RLV) - a small remote-piloted scramjet vehicle called AVATAR. The RLV will place small satellites into LEO and can be reused for at least 100 launches reducing the cost of launching satellites
Launch facilities
ISRO operates 3 launch stations:
Thumba (TERLS - Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station/Vikram Sarabhai Space Center, Kerala),
Shriharikota (SRLS - Shriharikota Rocket Launching Station/Satish Dhawan Space Center,
Andhra Pradesh).
Balasore (BRLS - Balasore Rocket Launching Station, Orissa).
The Shriharikota range is used for launch of satellites and multi-stage rockets. The launch station has two launch pads including the newest Universal Launch Pad. The two launch pads allow the station to hold up to 6 launches per year. The other two launch facilities are capable of launching sounding rockets, and other small rockets that don't produce spent stages.
Comparison with other space agencies
It is suggested that in terms of technical expertise and experience, ISRO is close to other major Asian space programs, especially China, and in some respects to Japan. Continued developments of reliable and cost-effective launch platforms are expected to see commercial costs of launching payloads on Indian rockets fall, perhaps by as much as fifty percent. Once established, the Indian GSLV-III should be able to place 4000 to 6000 kg payloads into GTO despite ISRO's modest funding; it appears to have achieved reasonable successes. India is counted amongst the six major space powers of the world, and is among the top nations in Asia in terms of success and future potential in space. Indian launch vehicles have the capacity for human spaceflight, however, ISRO has stated that it can achieve all India's commercial and scientific needs through unmanned spaceflight alone, raising the question of whether a crewed spaceflight will occur.
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